The code in this notebook is adapted from the original MATLAB implementation by Chris Bracegirdle for the paper Bayesian Conditional Cointegration presented at ICML 2012
install.packages(c("tseries","pROC"))
options(repr.plot.width=4, repr.plot.height=4)
cat("
Bayesian Cointegration
Implementation of a Bayesian test for cointegration
Written by Chris Bracegirdle
(c) Chris Bracegirdle 2015. All rights reserved.")
The downloaded binary packages are in /var/folders/bc/dnbc_47x6j7036ft8dp3bckh0000gn/T//Rtmp9bibIM/downloaded_packages Bayesian Cointegration Implementation of a Bayesian test for cointegration Written by Chris Bracegirdle (c) Chris Bracegirdle 2015. All rights reserved.
This is a rather contrived function to randomly generate two time series, x and y, after making a random decision as to whether they are cointegrated, and generating according to the corresponding generating function
GenerateData <- function(T) {
cointegrated <- runif(1) > 0.5
phi <- if(cointegrated) runif(1) * 2 - 1 else 1
std_eta <- exp(rnorm(1))
std_x <- exp(rnorm(1))
intercept <- exp(rnorm(1, sd=5))
slope <- exp(rnorm(1, mean=1, sd=5))
epsilon <- double(length=T)
x <- double(length=T)
y <- double(length=T)
epsilon[1] <- rnorm(1, sd=std_eta)
x[1] <- rnorm(1, sd=std_x)
y[1] <- intercept + slope * x[1] + epsilon[1]
for (t in 2:T){
epsilon[t] <- phi * epsilon[t-1] + rnorm(1, sd=std_eta)
x[t] <- x[t-1] + rnorm(1, sd=std_x)
y[t] <- intercept + slope * x[t] + epsilon[t]
}
return(list("cointegrated" = cointegrated, "x" = x, "y" = y))
}
And here's what some randomly-generated data look like. Give it a whirl!
gendata = GenerateData(1000)
par(cex.axis=0.7, cex.lab=0.7, cex.main=0.7, cex.sub=0.7)
plot(gendata$x, type='l', col='blue', ylim=range(gendata$x, gendata$y), ylab='')
par(new=T); plot(gendata$y, type='l', col='green', axes=F, ylab=''); par(new=F)
gendata[names(gendata)=='cointegrated']
LinearRegression <- function(x,y) {
slope <- cor(x, y) * (sd(y) / sd(x))
intercept <- mean(y) - (slope * mean(x))
std_eta = sd( y - intercept - slope * x)
return(list("slope"=slope, "intercept"=intercept, "std_eta"=std_eta))
}
LinearRegression(gendata$x,gendata$y)
This is an implementation of logSumExp with support for a vector of indices (b)
mylogsumexp <- function(a,b) {
#LOGSUMEXP Compute log(sum(exp(a).*b)) valid for large a
# example: mylogsumexp(c(-1000,-1001,-998),c(1,2,0.5))
amax <- max(Re(a))
if (amax == -Inf) {
amax=0
}
return(amax + log(as.complex(sum(exp(a-amax)*b))))
}
This is a key result from the paper: calculating the moments and area as derived in the paper
CalcLogAreaLog <- function(logf,logF) {
lncdf <- pnorm(c(1, -1), mean = Re(exp(logf)), sd = Re(exp(0.5*logF)), log.p = TRUE)
logarea <- Re(mylogsumexp(lncdf, c(1, -1))-log(2))
return(logarea)
}
CalcMomentsLog <- function(logf,logF,logarea) {
lnpdf <- dnorm(c(1,-1), mean = Re(exp(logf)), sd = Re(exp(0.5*logF)), log = TRUE)
logmoment1 <- mylogsumexp(c(lnpdf[1]+logF-logarea, lnpdf[2]+logF-logarea, logf), c(-0.5, 0.5, 1))
logmoment2 <- mylogsumexp(c(logF+logf+lnpdf[1]-logarea, logF+logf+lnpdf[2]-logarea,
logF+lnpdf[1]-logarea, logF+lnpdf[2]-logarea, 2*logf, logF),
c(-0.5, 0.5,
-0.5, -0.5, 1, 1))
return(list("moment1"=Re(exp(logmoment1)), "moment2"=Re(exp(logmoment2))))
}
Now inference: filtering and the EM update routine.
Filtering <- function(V,std_eta) {
T <- length(V)
# DIRECT METHOD
logft <- log(as.complex(sum(V[2:T]*V[1:T-1])))-log(sum(V[1:T-1]^2))
logFt <- 2*log(std_eta) - log(sum(V[1:T-1]^2))
stopifnot(!is.nan(logft)) #logft must be real
stopifnot(!is.nan(logFt)) #logFt must be real
stopifnot(is.double(logFt)) #logFt must be real
logarea <- CalcLogAreaLog(logft,logFt)
loglik <- -0.5*log(sum(V[1:T-1]^2))-0.5*(T-2)*log(2*pi*std_eta^2)+logarea
-(sum(V[2:T]^2)-sum(V[2:T]*V[1:T-1])^2/sum(V[1:T-1]^2))/(2*std_eta^2)
# calculate moments
moments <- CalcMomentsLog(logft,logFt,logarea)
return(list("loglik"=loglik, "moment1"=moments$moment1, "moment2"=moments$moment2))
}
EMUpdate <- function(x,y,moment1,moment2) {
T <- length(x)
xt <- x[2:T]
xtm1 <- x[1:T-1]
yt <- y[2:T]
ytm1 <- y[1:T-1]
# find the coefficients
a <- 2 * (T-1) * moment1 - (T-1) * moment2 - (T-1)
b <- moment1 * sum(xt+xtm1) - moment2 * sum(xtm1) - sum(xt)
c <- moment2 * sum(ytm1) - moment1 * sum(yt + ytm1) + sum(yt)
d <- 2 * moment1 * sum(xt * xtm1) - moment2 * sum(xtm1 ^ 2) - sum(xt ^ 2)
e <- moment2 * sum(xtm1 * ytm1) - moment1 * sum(xtm1 * yt + xt * ytm1) + sum(xt * yt)
# solve simultaneous equations
slope <- ((a * e) - (c * b)) / ((b ^ 2) - (a * d))
intercept <- (-slope * d / b) - (e / b)
# now find optimal sigma
eps <- y - intercept - slope * x
ept <- eps[2:T]
eptm1 <- eps[1:T-1]
std_eta <- sqrt( (sum(ept^2) - 2 * moment1 * sum( ept * eptm1) + moment2 * sum(eptm1 ^ 2)) / (T-1) )
stopifnot(std_eta>0) #Standard deviation must be positive
stopifnot(is.double(std_eta)) #Standard deviation must be real
return(list("slope"=slope,"intercept"=intercept,"std_eta"=std_eta))
}
This is the real meat of the routine, simple since the inference routines are given above.
CointInference <- function(epsilon,std_eta,x,y) {
filtering <- Filtering(epsilon,std_eta)
update <- EMUpdate(x,y,filtering$moment1,filtering$moment2)
#std_eta_with_old_regression <- sqrt( (sum(epsilon[1:]**2) \
# - 2 * sum(moment1 * epsilon[1:] * epsilon[:-1]) \
# + sum(moment2 * epsilon[:-1] ** 2)) / (x.size - 1) )
return(list("loglik"=filtering$loglik,
"slope"=update$slope, "intercept"=update$intercept,
"std_eta"=update$std_eta#,"std_eta_with_old_regression"=std_eta_with_old_regression
#,"moment1"=filtering$moment1
))
}
And finally, the function we'll expose to check for cointegration using the Bayesian method.
BayesianLearningTest <- function(x,y) {
T <- length(x)
ols <- LinearRegression(x,y)
slope <- ols$slope
intercept <- ols$intercept
std_eta_coint <- ols$std_eta
# cointegrated case - learn slope, intercept, std by ML
logliks <- c(-Inf)
for (i in 1:1000){
stopifnot(!is.nan(intercept)) #Intercept cannot be nan
stopifnot(!is.nan(slope)) #Slope cannot be nan
stopifnot(is.double(std_eta_coint)) #Standard deviation must be real
stopifnot(std_eta_coint > 0) #Standard deviation must be greater then 0
inference <- CointInference(y-intercept-slope*x,std_eta_coint,x,y)
slope <- inference$slope
intercept <- inference$intercept
std_eta_coint <- inference$std_eta
if (inference$loglik-tail(logliks, n=1)<0.00001) {
break
}
logliks <- c(logliks,inference$loglik)
}
# non-cointegrated case - use above slope, intercept, use ML std
epsilon <- y-intercept-slope*x
std_eta_p1 <- sqrt(mean((epsilon[2:T]-epsilon[1:T-1])^2))
loglik_p1 <- sum(dnorm(epsilon[2:T], mean = epsilon[1:T-1], sd = std_eta_p1, log = TRUE))
bayes_factor <- exp(loglik_p1 - inference$loglik)
cointegrated <- inference$loglik > loglik_p1
return(loglik_p1 - inference$loglik)
}
Here we'll test the routine. First, generate some data to use.
gendata = GenerateData(1000)
par(cex.axis=0.7, cex.lab=0.7, cex.main=0.7, cex.sub=0.7)
plot(gendata$x, type='l', col='blue', ylim=range(gendata$x, gendata$y), ylab='')
par(new=T); plot(gendata$y, type='l', col='green', axes=F, ylab=''); par(new=F)
gendata[names(gendata)=='cointegrated']
And let's try the Bayesian routine to see if the result matches the truth given above when generating
BF <- BayesianLearningTest(gendata$x,gendata$y)
test_result <- BF<0
if (test_result == gendata$cointegrated) {
comparison <- "Congratulations! The result of the routine matches the ground truth"
} else {
comparison <- "Unfortunately the routine disagreed with the ground truth"
}
list("test_result"=test_result, "comparison"=comparison)
For comparison purposes we now test for cointegration using the standard test.
require(tseries)
ols <- LinearRegression(gendata$x,gendata$y)
epsilon <- gendata$y-ols$intercept-ols$slope*gendata$x
adf <- adf.test(epsilon, k=1)
pvalue <- adf$p.value
cointegrated_adf <- pvalue<0.05
cointegrated_adf
Loading required package: tseries Warning message in adf.test(epsilon, k = 1): “p-value smaller than printed p-value”
Both the Bayesian learning test and the Dickey-Fuller test do the job and provide a test statistic which we compare against a threshold. To compare which test is better, we look at the ROC curve, and in particular, the AUC of the ROC. To do that, we repeatedly generate time series and perform both tests, then plot the resulting ROC curve.
T <- 20
experiments <- 5000
cointegratedActual <- logical(length=experiments)
logBF <- double(length=experiments)
pvalue <- double(length=experiments)
for (expr in 1:experiments) {
gendata <- GenerateData(T)
cointegratedActual[expr] <- gendata$cointegrated
#classical test
ols <- LinearRegression(gendata$x,gendata$y)
epsilon <- gendata$y-ols$intercept-ols$slope*gendata$x
suppressWarnings(adf <- adf.test(epsilon, k=1))
pvalue[expr] <- adf$p.value
#bayesian test
logBF[expr] <- BayesianLearningTest(gendata$x,gendata$y)
if (expr %% (experiments/20) == 0) {
print(paste("Experiment",expr,"of",experiments))
}
}
[1] "Experiment 250 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 500 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 750 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 1000 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 1250 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 1500 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 1750 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 2000 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 2250 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 2500 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 2750 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 3000 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 3250 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 3500 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 3750 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 4000 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 4250 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 4500 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 4750 of 5000" [1] "Experiment 5000 of 5000"
require(pROC)
roc_adf <- roc(cointegratedActual, -pvalue)
roc_bayes <- roc(cointegratedActual, -logBF)
par(cex.axis=0.7, cex.lab=0.7, cex.main=0.7, cex.sub=0.7)
plot.roc(roc_adf, col='blue')
plot.roc(roc_bayes, add=TRUE, col='green')
legend("bottomright", legend=c("DF", "Bayes"),
col=c("blue",'green'), lwd=2, text.width = 0.15, cex=0.7)
list("adf"=roc_adf, "bayes"=roc_bayes)
Loading required package: pROC Type 'citation("pROC")' for a citation. Attaching package: ‘pROC’ The following objects are masked from ‘package:stats’: cov, smooth, var
$adf Call: roc.default(response = cointegratedActual, predictor = -pvalue) Data: -pvalue in 2539 controls (cointegratedActual FALSE) < 2461 cases (cointegratedActual TRUE). Area under the curve: 0.7822 $bayes Call: roc.default(response = cointegratedActual, predictor = -logBF) Data: -logBF in 2539 controls (cointegratedActual FALSE) < 2461 cases (cointegratedActual TRUE). Area under the curve: 0.8976
The above curve shows the efficacy of the classification of the test between cointegrated and non-cointegrated. Perfect classification occurs in the top left of the chart.